Factors associated with COVID-19 vaccination in Belize.

Background: We analyzed the factors associated with vaccine uptake, vaccination intention, and reasons for vaccine hesitancy in Belize. Methods: We collected a nationally representative household survey of the population in Belize aged 15 years and older (September-October 2021). We compared potential correlates between vaccinated and unvaccinated people using Chi-square tests. Then, we performed logistic regression analysis to identify factors associated with vaccination uptake among all respondents and vaccination intention among the unvaccinated. Results: Our analysis included data from 1261 interviews. Nearly four out of every five people reported being vaccinated, having received at least one dose. Adolescents and young adults were more likely to be unvaccinated. Significant differences were observed for most behavioral variables. Among the 41.7% of the unvaccinated respondents who said they would probably not or definitely not get vaccinated, the primary reason for their hesitation was fear of side effects. Additionally, almost one third of the unvaccinated individuals expressed a lack of trust in vaccines. Factors associated with increased likelihood of vaccination were efficacy beliefs, self-efficacy and vaccine attitudes. People who believed it was easy to get a vaccine were over 23 times (OR 23.63 [95% CI: 14.21-39.27]) more likely to be vaccinated, while those who believed in vaccine safety were 2.57 times [OR 95% CI: 1.52-4.35] more likely to be vaccinated. Among the unvaccinated, factors associated with intention to get vaccinated were self-identifying as Garifuna and having clear efficacy beliefs. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first study describing factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine uptake and vaccine hesitancy in Belize. Our findings revealed that accessibility has been the primary limitation in increasing vaccine coverage, and <7% of the eligible population have been strong vaccine deniers. To enhance vaccine uptake, targeted outreach efforts are necessary to address access barriers. Our results call for increased efforts improving self-efficacy, efficacy beliefs, and perceived norms.

Supporting child and family resilience in the face of political violence: Evidence from a home visit parenting program.

Political violence affects more than 25% of children globally, yet little is known about how to support positive adaptation among conflict-affected children. Using a sample of 3797 Nicaraguan child-caregiver dyads (MAgeTime1 = 1.5 years, MAgeTime2 = 5.9 years; 51% male), this registered report used a novel quasi-experimental approach to examine how exposure to political violence relates to child and caregiver outcomes, and to test three policy-relevant moderators: participation in a large-scale home visit parenting program, household economic disruption, and media exposure. Results revealed positive associations between political violence and harsh discipline practices (0.33 SD), but there was no evidence that political violence affected children's behavior, caregiver depressive symptoms, or responsive parenting practices, and there was no evidence of moderation.

Global tracking of access and quality in early childhood care and education.

Investments in early childhood care and education (ECCE) have contributed to a growing demand for internationally comparable data. Yet data on access to quality ECCE are not routinely collected in many countries, leading to limited information on equitable access to ECCE, quality of provision, and the impact on learning and wellbeing outcomes. This paper outlines the current status of global measurement of access to quality ECCE and identifies issues with definitions, availability, and accuracy of ECCE data across countries and outlines paths forward. We argue that estimates of access to ECCE should be based on children's participation in quality ECCE across multiple program types, rather than enrollment or attendance alone, given the critical importance of dosage and participation for ensuring positive benefits from ECCE. Governments, international organizations, and researchers all have roles to play in setting standards to define and monitor ECCE, generating workable tools for measuring nationally, and globally investing in national monitoring systems and routine household surveys to obtain accurate estimates of access to quality ECCE.

A Remote Parenting Program and Parent and Staff Perspectives: A Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVES: To assess impact and implementation of remote delivery of a parenting program following suspension of in-person visits during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. METHODS: Impact of remote delivery of the Reach Up parenting program on parenting practices was evaluated by randomized trial in Jamaica. Mothers with children aged 5 to 24 months who met 1 of 7 at-risk criteria were enrolled at health centers. Participants were randomly assigned to intervention or control using random number tables generated by a statistician. Intervention comprised a manual for parents with illustrated play activities, phone calls, and short message service messages. The control group received usual care. Parent practices were measured using an adapted Family Care Indicators telephone-administered questionnaire by interviewers unaware of group assignment. Qualitative interviews were conducted with staff and parents in Jamaica and Brazil and staff in Ecuador to identify facilitators and barriers to remote delivery of Reach Up. RESULTS: Two hundred forty-seven participants were assessed at endline (control n = 130; intervention n = 117). Intervention increased parent activities that support child development, effect size 0.34 SD (95% confidence interval 0.03-0.53), and use of praise, odds 2 times higher with intervention. There were no benefits to interactive language or play materials. Qualitative results showed parents appreciated program continuation and felt motivated to help their child, and methods were acceptable to staff. Barriers included poor mobile phone access, difficulty contacting parents, and feedback limitations without in-person contact. CONCLUSIONS: Remote delivery methods have potential to contribute to scaling of parenting programs.

[Intimate Partner Violence and Early Childhood DevelopmentViolência por parceiro íntimo e desenvolvimento na primeira infância]. / Violencia de pareja y desarrollo infantil temprano.

Objectives: To describe the prevalence of different types of intimate partner violence and estimate how this relates to child development in a low-income country in Latin America. The relationship between intimate partner violence and childcare practices, including the use of physical punishment, was also examined. Methods: An observational study was conducted using data collected as a baseline for an impact evaluation of the National Early Childhood Program in Nicaragua between 2013 and 2014. The sample included 8921 children between 0 and 5 years and 7436 mothers or caregivers in municipalities with an extreme poverty rate of over 0.2. Results: The data revealed that 61% of mothers or caregivers reported controlling behavior by their partners, 50% suffered emotional violence, and 26% suffered physical violence at some point in their lives. Furthermore, the data demonstrated that children exposed to intimate partner violence displayed greater behavioral problems and delayed language and social-emotional development. These children are also more likely to be born prematurely and to have incomplete vaccination schedules. Finally, homes exposed to intimate partner violence are more likely to create more hostile and unsafe environments for children. Conclusions: The results reflect the magnitude of intimate partner violence and its detrimental effects on children. Public policies need to be devised and implemented not only to prevent this behavior and mitigate sequelae in exposed children but also to curb the intergenerational transmission of violence.

Objetivos: Descrever a prevalência de diferentes tipos de violência por parceiro íntimo em um país de baixa renda da América Latina e estimar sua relação com o desenvolvimento infantil das crianças expostas. Também foi estimada a relação entre a violência por parceiro íntimo e práticas de cuidado infantil, incluindo o castigo físico. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo observacional utilizando dados coletados como linha de base para uma avaliação de impacto do Programa Nacional da Primeira Infância na Nicarágua, entre 2013 e 2014. A amostra conta com 8.921 crianças de 0 a 5 anos e 7.436 mães ou cuidadores, localizados em municípios com índice de extrema pobreza superior a 0,2. Resultados: Os dados indicam que 61% das mães ou cuidadores relataram comportamentos controladores de seus parceiros, 50% sofreram violência emocional e 26% sofreram violência física em algum momento da vida. Além disso, os dados mostram que crianças expostas à violência por parceiro íntimo apresentam pior comportamento e mais defasagens no desenvolvimento da linguagem e no desenvolvimento socioindividual. Também são mais propensas a nascer prematuramente e a ter esquema de vacinação incompleto. Finalmente, os lares expostos à violência pelo parceiro íntimo têm mais probabilidade de ser um ambiente mais hostil e inseguro para as crianças. Conclusões: Os resultados refletem a magnitude da violência por parceiro íntimo e como ela afeta negativamente as crianças. Consequentemente, é importante que se elaborem e implementem políticas públicas para a prevenção desse comportamento, a fim de evitar as sequelas que ele gera nas crianças e interromper sua transmissão intergeracional.

Violencia de pareja y desarrollo infantil temprano

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Describir la prevalencia de diferentes tipos de violencia por parte de la pareja íntima, y estimar cómo esta se relaciona con el desarrollo infantil de los niños expuestos, en un país de bajos ingresos en Amé- rica Latina. También estimamos la relación entre la violencia por parte de la pareja íntima y las prácticas de cuidado infantil, incluyendo el uso de castigo físico. Métodos. Se hizo un estudio observacional, utilizando datos recolectados como línea de base para una eva- luación de impacto del Programa Nacional de Primera Infancia en Nicaragua entre 2013 y 2014. La muestra cuenta con 8 921 niños de entre 0 y 5 años y 7 436 madres o cuidadoras, ubicados en municipios que tienen un índice de pobreza extrema mayor a 0,2. Resultados. Los datos indican que el 61% de las madres o cuidadoras ha reportado comportamientos con- troladores de sus parejas, el 50% ha sufrido violencia emocional y el 26% ha sufrido violencia física alguna vez en su vida. Además, los datos muestran que los niños expuestos a violencia por parte de la pareja íntima muestran un peor comportamiento, y mayores rezagos en el desarrollo del lenguaje y el desarrollo social-indi- vidual. También muestran mayores probabilidades de nacimientos prematuros, y son más propensos a tener un esquema de vacunación incompleto. Por último, es más probable que los hogares expuestos a violencia por parte de la pareja íntima sean un ambiente más hostil y poco seguro para los niños. Conclusiones. Los resultados reflejan la magnitud de la violencia por parte de la pareja íntima y cómo esta afecta negativamente a los niños. Consecuentemente, es importante que se diseñen e implementen políticas públicas de prevención de esta conducta para evitar las secuelas que generan en los niños y frenar su trans- misión intergeneracional.

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To describe the prevalence of different types of intimate partner violence and estimate how this relates to child development in a low-income country in Latin America. The relationship between intimate part- ner violence and childcare practices, including the use of physical punishment, was also examined. Methods. An observational study was conducted using data collected as a baseline for an impact evaluation of the National Early Childhood Program in Nicaragua between 2013 and 2014. The sample included 8921 children between 0 and 5 years and 7436 mothers or caregivers in municipalities with an extreme poverty rate of over 0.2. Results. The data revealed that 61% of mothers or caregivers reported controlling behavior by their partners, 50% suffered emotional violence, and 26% suffered physical violence at some point in their lives. Furthermore, the data demonstrated that children exposed to intimate partner violence displayed greater behavioral pro- blems and delayed language and social-emotional development. These children are also more likely to be born prematurely and to have incomplete vaccination schedules. Finally, homes exposed to intimate partner violence are more likely to create more hostile and unsafe environments for children. Conclusions. The results reflect the magnitude of intimate partner violence and its detrimental effects on children. Public policies need to be devised and implemented not only to prevent this behavior and mitigate sequelae in exposed children but also to curb the intergenerational transmission of violence.

[RESUMO]. Objetivos. Descrever a prevalência de diferentes tipos de violência por parceiro íntimo em um país de baixa renda da América Latina e estimar sua relação com o desenvolvimento infantil das crianças expostas. Tam- bém foi estimada a relação entre a violência por parceiro íntimo e práticas de cuidado infantil, incluindo o castigo físico. Métodos. Foi realizado um estudo observacional utilizando dados coletados como linha de base para uma avaliação de impacto do Programa Nacional da Primeira Infância na Nicarágua, entre 2013 e 2014. A amostra conta com 8.921 crianças de 0 a 5 anos e 7.436 mães ou cuidadores, localizados em municípios com índice de extrema pobreza superior a 0,2. Resultados. Os dados indicam que 61% das mães ou cuidadores relataram comportamentos controladores de seus parceiros, 50% sofreram violência emocional e 26% sofreram violência física em algum momento da vida. Além disso, os dados mostram que crianças expostas à violência por parceiro íntimo apresentam pior comportamento e mais defasagens no desenvolvimento da linguagem e no desenvolvimento socioindividual. Também são mais propensas a nascer prematuramente e a ter esquema de vacinação incompleto. Final- mente, os lares expostos à violência pelo parceiro íntimo têm mais probabilidade de ser um ambiente mais hostil e inseguro para as crianças. Conclusões. Os resultados refletem a magnitude da violência por parceiro íntimo e como ela afeta negativa- mente as crianças. Consequentemente, é importante que se elaborem e implementem políticas públicas para a prevenção desse comportamento, a fim de evitar as sequelas que ele gera nas crianças e interromper sua transmissão intergeracional.

Better than my neighbor? Testing for overconfidence in COVID-19 preventive behaviors in Latin America.

BACKGROUND: Procrastination and lack of attention may often hinder the implementation of preemptive actions necessary to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 like washing hands, covering nose and mouth with a mask, and keeping social distance. It is in such "easy" tasks that people (mistakenly) believe that they are better than others. In this paper we test for overconfidence bias in COVID-19 preventive behaviors in Latin America. METHODS: Using a phone survey in nationally representative samples from 10 Latin American countries where randomly, half of the sample in each country was asked about self-reported compliance to COVID-19 guidelines, and half about preventive behavior of fellow citizens compared to them; we tested: if the proportion of individuals claiming that others comply with a certain measure "Always more frequent than me" is higher than those stating that they "Never" or "Sometimes" comply with the same measure (i.e. people believe they are better at doing something than what they actually are). RESULTS: Over 90% of Latin-Americans claim to always wear a mask and sanitize their hands and more than 80% state to always keep social distance. We also find evidence of overconfidence in every behavior - except for keeping distance in public transportation. Moreover, the magnitude of such overconfidence is higher for behaviors such as wearing masks in public or washing hands than for those regarding keeping the 2-m distance. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to measure overconfidence in COVID-19 preventive behaviors in Latin America. Results show that more effort is needed to encourage people to comply with the regulation when it does not only depend on them: a better organization of closed stores and public transportation are, for instance, crucial to allow social distancing. It also suggests that a reinforcement of basic measures is essential, as individuals report to be performing them more frequently than when they have to think about such behaviors compared to others.

Violencia de pareja y desarrollo infantil temprano / Intimate Partner Violence and Early Childhood Development / Violência por parceiro íntimo e desenvolvimento na primeira infância

RESUMEN Objetivos. Describir la prevalencia de diferentes tipos de violencia por parte de la pareja íntima, y estimar cómo esta se relaciona con el desarrollo infantil de los niños expuestos, en un país de bajos ingresos en América Latina. También estimamos la relación entre la violencia por parte de la pareja íntima y las prácticas de cuidado infantil, incluyendo el uso de castigo físico. Métodos. Se hizo un estudio observacional, utilizando datos recolectados como línea de base para una evaluación de impacto del Programa Nacional de Primera Infancia en Nicaragua entre 2013 y 2014. La muestra cuenta con 8 921 niños de entre 0 y 5 años y 7 436 madres o cuidadoras, ubicados en municipios que tienen un índice de pobreza extrema mayor a 0,2. Resultados. Los datos indican que el 61% de las madres o cuidadoras ha reportado comportamientos controladores de sus parejas, el 50% ha sufrido violencia emocional y el 26% ha sufrido violencia física alguna vez en su vida. Además, los datos muestran que los niños expuestos a violencia por parte de la pareja íntima muestran un peor comportamiento, y mayores rezagos en el desarrollo del lenguaje y el desarrollo social-individual. También muestran mayores probabilidades de nacimientos prematuros, y son más propensos a tener un esquema de vacunación incompleto. Por último, es más probable que los hogares expuestos a violencia por parte de la pareja íntima sean un ambiente más hostil y poco seguro para los niños. Conclusiones. Los resultados reflejan la magnitud de la violencia por parte de la pareja íntima y cómo esta afecta negativamente a los niños. Consecuentemente, es importante que se diseñen e implementen políticas públicas de prevención de esta conducta para evitar las secuelas que generan en los niños y frenar su transmisión intergeneracional.

ABSTRACT Objectives. To describe the prevalence of different types of intimate partner violence and estimate how this relates to child development in a low-income country in Latin America. The relationship between intimate partner violence and childcare practices, including the use of physical punishment, was also examined. Methods. An observational study was conducted using data collected as a baseline for an impact evaluation of the National Early Childhood Program in Nicaragua between 2013 and 2014. The sample included 8921 children between 0 and 5 years and 7436 mothers or caregivers in municipalities with an extreme poverty rate of over 0.2. Results. The data revealed that 61% of mothers or caregivers reported controlling behavior by their partners, 50% suffered emotional violence, and 26% suffered physical violence at some point in their lives. Furthermore, the data demonstrated that children exposed to intimate partner violence displayed greater behavioral problems and delayed language and social-emotional development. These children are also more likely to be born prematurely and to have incomplete vaccination schedules. Finally, homes exposed to intimate partner violence are more likely to create more hostile and unsafe environments for children. Conclusions. The results reflect the magnitude of intimate partner violence and its detrimental effects on children. Public policies need to be devised and implemented not only to prevent this behavior and mitigate sequelae in exposed children but also to curb the intergenerational transmission of violence.

RESUMO Objetivos. Descrever a prevalência de diferentes tipos de violência por parceiro íntimo em um país de baixa renda da América Latina e estimar sua relação com o desenvolvimento infantil das crianças expostas. Também foi estimada a relação entre a violência por parceiro íntimo e práticas de cuidado infantil, incluindo o castigo físico. Métodos. Foi realizado um estudo observacional utilizando dados coletados como linha de base para uma avaliação de impacto do Programa Nacional da Primeira Infância na Nicarágua, entre 2013 e 2014. A amostra conta com 8.921 crianças de 0 a 5 anos e 7.436 mães ou cuidadores, localizados em municípios com índice de extrema pobreza superior a 0,2. Resultados. Os dados indicam que 61% das mães ou cuidadores relataram comportamentos controladores de seus parceiros, 50% sofreram violência emocional e 26% sofreram violência física em algum momento da vida. Além disso, os dados mostram que crianças expostas à violência por parceiro íntimo apresentam pior comportamento e mais defasagens no desenvolvimento da linguagem e no desenvolvimento socioindividual. Também são mais propensas a nascer prematuramente e a ter esquema de vacinação incompleto. Finalmente, os lares expostos à violência pelo parceiro íntimo têm mais probabilidade de ser um ambiente mais hostil e inseguro para as crianças. Conclusões. Os resultados refletem a magnitude da violência por parceiro íntimo e como ela afeta negativamente as crianças. Consequentemente, é importante que se elaborem e implementem políticas públicas para a prevenção desse comportamento, a fim de evitar as sequelas que ele gera nas crianças e interromper sua transmissão intergeracional.

Global estimates of the implications of COVID-19-related preprimary school closures for children's instructional access, development, learning, and economic wellbeing.

Observational data collected prior to the pandemic (between 2004 and 2019) were used to simulate the potential consequences of early childhood care and education (ECCE) service closures on the estimated 167 million preprimary-age children in 196 countries who lost ECCE access between March 2020 and February 2021. COVID-19-related ECCE disruptions were estimated to result in 19.01 billion person-days of ECCE instruction lost, 10.75 million additional children falling "off track" in their early development, 14.18 million grades of learning lost by adolescence, and a present discounted value of USD 308.02 billion of earnings lost in adulthood. Further burdens associated with ongoing closures were also forecasted. Projected developmental and learning losses were concentrated in low- and lower middle-income countries, likely exacerbating long-standing global inequities.

Are Benefits From a Parenting Intervention Delivered Through the Health Services Sustainable? Follow-Up of a Randomized Evaluation in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVE: An innovative low-cost parenting intervention, implemented through health services in Jamaica showed benefits to children's cognitive development at 18 months and parent's attitudes concerning childcare. We assessed the impact of the intervention on child and parent outcomes at 6 years of age. METHODS: A cluster randomized trial of 2 parenting interventions was conducted through 20 health centers in Jamaica. Interventions were implemented from age 3 to 18 months and each intervention benefited cognitive development at 18 months (effect size 0.34-0.38 standard deviation). Children were reassessed at 6 years (n = 262, 80.1% of those assessed at 18 months) to determine any benefits to cognition, behavior, and parenting behavior. Loss to follow-up was not significantly different by treatment. Inverse probability weighting and Lee bounds were used to adjust for loss to follow-up, and multilevel regression analyses conducted with random effects at the health center level. RESULTS: There were no significant benefits to any child outcomes at age 6 years or to parenting behavior. Results are robust using the wild cluster bootstrap procedure and using Lee bounds for attrition. The initial trial benefits were reproduced with the current sample and methods. CONCLUSION: Lack of sustained benefits may be related to the initial effect size and low intensity of the intervention that ended very young at age 18 months. It may also be related to lack of initial impact on home environment and fade-out of effects in a country with near universal preschool. The findings have implications for intervention design and targeting.

Effect of a Social Norm Email Feedback Program on the Unnecessary Prescription of Nimodipine in Ambulatory Care of Older Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Nimodipine is a highly prescribed drug for the treatment of cognitive impairment and dementia in Argentina. There is little evidence to support the use of nimodipine for cognitive impairment and dementia. Objective: To test the effectiveness of a behavioral intervention based on social norm feedback to reduce prescription of nimodipine for cognitive impairment in Argentina. Design, Setting, and Participants: This pragmatic parallel-group randomized clinical trial included 2 arms with a 1:1 allocation ratio. General practitioner physicians in the national health care system for older adults in Argentina (INSSJP-PAMI) with history of high nimodipine prescription rate were enrolled. The study was conducted from May 2019 to October 2019, and data were analyzed from November 2019 to February 2020. Interventions: The treatment group received 2 emails with evidence-based information about nimodipine plus the individual's level of nimodipine prescription compared with their peers. The control group received 2 emails with general information about the risks of overprescription in older adults. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the cumulative number of nimodipine prescriptions per 1000 prescriptions of all drugs made by the targeted physicians during the 6 months of the study. Secondary outcomes included annual monetary savings attributable to the intervention and physicians' qualitative perceptions of the acceptability of the procedure. Results: Of 1811 physicians enrolled, 906 physicians (354 [39.1%] women; mean [SD] age, 57.10 [10.73] years) were randomized to treatment and 905 participants (331 [36.6%] women; mean [SD] age, 56.49 [10.47] years) to the control group. Physicians in the treatment group wrote a mean of 93.25 (95% CI, 89.27 to 97.24) prescriptions of nimodipine, compared with 98.99 (95% CI, 95.00 to 102.98) prescriptions among practitioners in the control group during the half-year of the intervention (mean difference, -5.73 [95% CI, -11.38 to -0.10] prescriptions; P = .046), which meant a 5.79% reduction. Regression analysis revealed a significant association of the group condition with number of prescriptions per 1000 total prescriptions when controlling for baseline prescriptions (B = -0.312 [95% CI, -0.465 to -0.160]; P < .001). The observed difference corresponds to a 4.48% reduction in nimodipine prescriptions per 1000 prescriptions of all drugs made by physicians in the treated group compared with the control group. Physicians who effectively opened the email in the treatment group (427 physicians [47.1%]) prescribed the drug 11.3% less compared with the control group (426 physicians) (mean difference, -10.78 [95% CI, -18.53 to -3.03] prescriptions; P = .006). Expenditures were 7.18% lower in the treatment group, resulting in an estimated annual net cost benefit of US $234 893.35 (95% CI, $225 565.35 to $237 112.30). Conclusions and Relevance: In this randomized clinical trial, the social norm email feedback program showed an effect on curbing the nonrecommended prescription of nimodipine. It was highly cost-effective and well accepted by participants. Trial Registration: ISRCTN.org identifier: ISRCTN17823729.

Initial psychometric properties of the Denver II in a sample from Northeast Brazil.

This paper assesses the initial psychometric properties of the Denver Developmental Screening Test (Denver II), a widely used child development measure in its first population-level administration in Brazil. The Portuguese version was administered to 2755 children under three years of age who were eligible for a home visiting program in Fortaleza, Northeast Brazil. We examine the measure's internal consistency and verify construct validity by testing the dimensionality through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and estimating associations with household socioeconomic variables (e.g., poverty, maternal education, stunting, and parenting practices). The test was found to be psychometrically robust and culturally relevant. Although we found a good fit with the structure proposed by the instrument's author, a structure of two latent variables (motor and cognitive) provided a better fit. This validity exercise provides useful information for policymakers and researchers interested in using this instrument in the Brazilian context or a similar one in the region.

Validity of four measures of child care quality in a national sample of centers in Ecuador.

This paper assesses the psychometric properties of four child care quality instruments administered in 404 child care centers in Ecuador: the Classroom Assessment Scoring System for Toddlers, the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale-Revised Edition, the Child Care Infant/Toddler Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment, and the Missouri Infant/Toddler Responsive Caregiving Checklist. We examined their internal consistency, tested the underlying subscale structure by means of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), verified construct validity by testing associations with quality-related factors (e.g., child-caregiver ratio), and checked concurrent validity of the instruments' total scores. We found high internal consistency of the instruments at the full scale level and moderate to high at the subscale/domain level. CFA showed high factor loadings, but goodness of fit statistics were low. Construct validity results varied from low to very low depending on the quality-related factor, and concurrent validity from low to very high depending on the instruments compared. This validity exercise provides useful information for policy-makers and researchers interested in using these instruments in the Ecuadorian context or elsewhere in the region. The findings will also inform future research and development of affordable and culturally-appropriate tools for monitoring process quality in child care centers in Latin American countries.

Early Child Development and Nutrition: A Review of the Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Integrated Interventions.

Poor nutrition (substandard diet quantity and/or quality resulting in under- or overnutrition) and the lack of early learning opportunities contribute to the loss of developmental potential and life-long health and economic disparities among millions of children aged <5 y. Single-sector interventions representing either early child development (ECD) or nutrition have been linked to positive child development and/or nutritional status, and recommendations currently advocate for the development and testing of integrated interventions. We reviewed the theoretical and practical benefits and challenges of implementing integrated nutrition and ECD interventions along with the evidence for best practice and benefit-cost and concluded that the strong theoretical rationale for integration is more nuanced than the questions that the published empirical evidence have addressed. For example, further research is needed to 1) answer questions related to how integrated messaging influences caregiver characteristics such as well-being, knowledge, and behavior and how these influence early child nutrition and development outcomes; 2) understand population and nutritional contexts in which integrated interventions are beneficial; and 3) explore how varying implementation processes influence the efficacy, uptake, and cost-benefit of integrated nutrition and ECD interventions.

Integrating a Parenting Intervention With Routine Primary Health Care: A Cluster Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVE: More than 200 million children globally do not attain their developmental potential. We hypothesized that a parent training program could be integrated into primary health center visits and benefit child development. METHODS: We conducted a cluster randomized trial in the Caribbean (Jamaica, Antigua, and St Lucia). Fifteen centers were randomly assigned to the control (n = 250 mother-child pairs) and 14 to the intervention (n = 251 mother-child pairs) groups. Participants were recruited at the 6- to 8-week child health visit. The intervention used group delivery at 5 routine visits from age 3 to 18 months and comprised short films of child development messages, which were shown in the waiting area; discussion and demonstration led by community health workers; and mothers' practice of activities. Nurses distributed message cards and a few play materials. Primary outcomes were child cognition, language, and hand-eye coordination and secondary outcomes were caregiver knowledge, practices, maternal depression, and child growth, measured after the 18-month visit. RESULTS: Eight-five percent of enrolled children were tested (control = 210, intervention = 216). Loss did not differ by group. Multilevel analyses showed significant benefits for cognitive development (3.09 points; 95% confidence interval: 1.31 to 4.87 points; effect size: 0.3 SDs). There were no other child benefits. There was a significant benefit to parenting knowledge (treatment effect: 1.59; 95% confidence interval: 1.01 to 2.17; effect size: 0.4). CONCLUSIONS: An innovative parenting intervention, requiring no additional clinic staff or mothers' time, was integrated into health services, with benefits to child cognitive development and parent knowledge. This is a promising strategy that merits further evaluation at scale.

Wealth gradients in early childhood cognitive development in five Latin American countries.

Research from the United States shows that gaps in early cognitive and non-cognitive ability appear early in the life cycle. Little is known about this important question for developing countries. This paper provides new evidence of sharp differences in cognitive development by socioeconomic status in early childhood for five Latin American countries. To help with comparability, we use the same measure of receptive language ability for all five countries. We find important differences in development in early childhood across countries, and steep socioeconomic gradients within every country. For the three countries where we can follow children over time, there are few substantive changes in scores once children enter school. Our results are robust to different ways of defining socioeconomic status, to different ways of standardizing outcomes, and to selective non-response on our measure of cognitive development.

Economic perspectives on integrating early child stimulation with nutritional interventions.

There is a strongly held view that a narrow window exists for effective nutritional interventions and a widely known stylized depiction of age-dependent economic rates of returns to investments in cognitive and socioemotional development. Both indicate critical periods in early life. Moreover, the fact that both the physical and cognitive development of a child in these early years are highly dependent on childcare practices and on the characteristics of the caregivers motivates an interest in finding effective means to enhance stimulation in the context of nutritional programs, or vice versa. Nevertheless, there is relatively little evidence to date on how to align integrated interventions to these age-specific patterns and how to undertake benefit-cost analyses for integrated interventions. Thus, many core questions need further consideration in order to design integrated nutritional and stimulation programs. This paper looks at some of these questions and provides some guidelines as to how the economic returns from joint nutrition and stimulation programs might be estimated.